Bolivia, officially the Plurinational State of Bolivia, is a landlocked country in central South America bordered by Brazil, Paraguay, Argentina, Chile, and Peru. Its geography spans the high Andean Altiplano and Cordillera ranges, intermontane valleys, the Chaco, and vast Amazonian lowlands. The country has two capitals: Sucre is the constitutional capital and seat of the judiciary, while La Paz is the administrative seat of the executive and legislature. The name honors Simón Bolívar. Area is about 1.1 million km², with elevations from lowland rainforest to Mount Sajama at 6542 m. Population is roughly 12 million. Official languages include Spanish plus 36 recognized indigenous languages, the most widely spoken being Quechua, Aymara, and Guaraní. The flag tricolor is red, yellow, green; the indigenous Wiphala has co-official status. Currency is the boliviano BOB. Government is a unitary presidential republic with a Plurinational Legislative Assembly. The head of state and government is the President; a Vice President and bicameral legislature support. Law enforcement is national; the armed forces include army, air force, and navy (a river and lake force). Gambling exists mainly in regulated lotteries and limited gaming. Time zone is UTC-4. Calling code +591. Internet TLD .bo.

History
Humans have lived on the Bolivian Altiplano for millennia. Near Lake Titicaca, the Tiwanaku civilization flourished roughly 400–1000 CE, pioneering raised-field agriculture and sophisticated stonework. After Tiwanaku’s decline, Aymara polities dominated the highlands until the 15th century, when the Inca incorporated western Bolivia (Collasuyo) into their empire, extending Andean road networks and terracing. Spanish conquistadors arrived in the 1530s, folding “Upper Peru” into the Viceroyalty of Peru and, later, the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. Discovery of the immense silver deposit at Cerro Rico (Potosí) in 1545 turned the region into a global economic engine, with indigenous and African labor forced into mining via systems like the mita. Colonial society blended Andean and Spanish traditions while entrenching racial and class hierarchies.
Early independence stirrings began with uprisings in Chuquisaca and La Paz in 1809. After a protracted war of liberation led by figures like Simón Bolívar and Antonio José de Sucre, Bolivia declared independence on August 6, 1825, adopting Bolívar’s name. The early republic grappled with caudillo rule, fiscal fragility, and competing regional interests. The short-lived Peru–Bolivian Confederation (1836–1839) dissolved after war with Chile and Peruvian restorationist forces. Throughout the 19th century, Bolivia lost peripheral territories: in the War of the Pacific (1879–1883), Chile seized the Litoral, leaving Bolivia landlocked; in the early 20th century, disputes with Brazil culminated in ceding Acre. Tin replaced silver as the mining backbone, empowering a “tin baron” elite.
The Chaco War (1932–1935) against Paraguay—fought over the arid Gran Chaco—ended disastrously for Bolivia, prompting soul-searching and reformist currents among veterans and intellectuals. The National Revolution of 1952, led by the Movimiento Nacionalista Revolucionario (MNR), transformed Bolivia: universal suffrage, agrarian reform, and the nationalization of the mines sought to dismantle oligarchic power. Subsequent decades saw oscillation between fragile civilian governments and military regimes, with episodes of repression and economic turbulence.
Democracy stabilized after 1982 amid neoliberal adjustments that curbed hyperinflation but deepened inequality and regional tensions. From 2000 to 2005, “water” and “gas” conflicts signaled renewed social mobilization. In 2006, Evo Morales, Bolivia’s first president of indigenous origin, took office on a platform of resource nationalism and plurinational recognition. A 2009 constitution refounded Bolivia as a plurinational state, expanded indigenous rights, and reasserted state roles in hydrocarbons. Political polarization, debates over term limits, and the 2019 crisis—marked by contested elections, protests, deaths, and a brief interim government—tested institutions. New elections in 2020 restored civilian rule under Luis Arce. Today, Bolivia continues to navigate the balance between resource development, environmental stewardship, indigenous autonomy, and democratic consolidation.

Industry
Bolivia’s economy rests on natural gas, mining, agriculture-forestry, manufacturing, and services. It is a significant exporter of natural gas (mainly to Brazil and Argentina), zinc, silver, tin, and gold. Salar de Uyuni holds some of the world’s largest lithium resources; pilot and industrial-scale projects are advancing with various foreign partners. Agroindustry in the lowlands produces soybeans, sugar, sunflower, and beef; the Amazonian departments harvest Brazil nuts. Notable consumer brands include Cervecería Boliviana Nacional (Paceña, Huari, Taquiña beers), PIL Andina (dairy), Sofía (poultry), La Suprema (oils), and EMBOL (Coca-Cola bottling). Textiles and alpaca-llama fiber goods, quinua real, and specialty coffees are export niches. Industrial “records” and distinctions include the world’s largest salt flat (Uyuni) leveraged for lithium brines, a legacy tin industry, and a gas grid connecting the Southern Cone. Constraints include landlocked status, logistics costs, and informality; opportunities lie in value-added metals, green energy minerals, and sustainable forestry.

Flora and fauna
One of the world’s most biodiverse countries, Bolivia spans Andean puna and páramo, Yungas cloud forests, Chiquitano dry forests, Chaco, Pantanal wetlands, and Amazon. Endemics and regional specialties include the Bolivian river dolphin Inia boliviensis, Beni titi monkey Plecturocebus modestus, Palkachupa cotinga Phibalura boliviana, Titicaca water frog Telmatobius culeus, and flightless Titicaca grebe Rollandia microptera. Charismatic fauna include jaguar, puma, spectacled bear, vicuña, guanaco, maned wolf, giant otter, Andean condor, and three flamingo species (Andean, James’s, Chilean). Protected areas like Madidi, Noel Kempff Mercado, Sajama, Amboró, Carrasco, and Kaa-Iya conserve vast ecosystems. Threats include deforestation, illegal mining, mercury pollution, fires, and habitat fragmentation. CITES rules apply; export of wildlife, plants, and cultural-natural specimens is strictly regulated. Hazards for visitors include altitude exposure in the Andes, aggressive animals if provoked (sea-level crocodilians in the Amazon, fer-de-lance and coral snakes in lowlands), and disease vectors. Domestic animals include llamas, alpacas, sheep, cattle, and working dogs.

Religion and races
Bolivia is multiethnic: large indigenous populations (Aymara, Quechua, Guaraní and others), mestizos, and smaller European, Afro-Bolivian, and Asian communities. Estimates vary, but indigenous-identifying populations constitute a substantial share, often cited near half or more; mestizos compose much of the remainder. Christianity predominates, historically Roman Catholic; Protestant and evangelical communities have grown in recent decades. A meaningful minority reports no religion. Syncretic traditions blend Catholic saints with Andean cosmology (Pachamama, mountain apus), visible in festivals and rituals across the country.

Wars and conflicts
Key interstate conflicts include the War of the Pacific (loss of the coast to Chile, 1879–1883) and the Chaco War (1932–1935). Domestic unrest has recurred, notably 1952 revolution; 2003 “Gas War”; and the 2019 crisis. Today Bolivia has no active external war; security challenges include illegal mining, narcotrafficking corridors, and episodic civil unrest. War cemeteries and memorials—such as Chaco cemeteries in Villamontes and memorials in La Paz and Sucre—commemorate the fallen. Terrorism risk is generally low; protest-related violence has, at times, resulted in deaths.

Standard of living
Living standards vary markedly between urban lowlands, valley cities, and rural highlands. Poverty has fallen over two decades, but inequality persists. Human Development Index is in the high-medium to high bracket (around 0.73). Corruption perceptions remain a concern; rule-of-law and judicial independence are frequently criticized. Costs for imported goods are elevated; public services are improving but uneven by region.

Medicine
Healthcare quality is best in major cities (La Paz–El Alto, Santa Cruz, Cochabamba), with private clinics far exceeding public facilities. Pharmacies are widespread in cities, and at least one pharmacy is typically on Sunday/night duty per neighborhood. Travelers should carry comprehensive medical and evacuation insurance. Tap water is not reliably potable outside select areas; boil or use sealed bottled water. Yellow fever vaccination is recommended—and in practice often required—if visiting areas below about 2300 m east of the Andes. Altitude sickness is common at elevations over 2500 m; ascend gradually, hydrate, and consider acetazolamide in consultation with a physician. Mosquito-borne diseases (dengue, Zika, chikungunya, malaria in some Amazonian zones) are present.

Sport
Football is the national passion; Bolivia won the 1963 Copa América and was runner-up in 1997. Clubs like Bolívar, The Strongest, and Oriente Petrolero have large followings. Altitude home advantage at Estadio Hernando Siles is famed. Other sports include futsal, racquetball (with world-class Bolivian athletes), cycling, mountaineering, and indigenous wrestling spectacles such as “cholitas wrestling.” Bolivia has participated in many Summer and Winter Olympics but has not yet won an Olympic medal.

Holidays
– New Year’s Day – 1 January
– Plurinational State Foundation Day – 22 January
– Carnival Monday/Tuesday – February/March
– Good Friday – March/April
– Labor Day – 1 May
– Corpus Christi – May/June
– Aymara New Year – 21 June
– Independence Day – 6 August
– Day of the Dead/All Souls – 2 November
– Christmas Day – 25 December
Observances include Day of the Sea – 23 March, Alasitas (from 24 January in La Paz), and regional civic days.

Traditions
Andean offerings to Pachamama (ch’alla) accompany life events and new endeavors. Alasitas venerates Ekeko, god of abundance, with miniature purchases. Day of the Dead features tantawawas (breads) and family altars. In markets, asking before photographing people—especially cholitas—is respectful. Visitors should accept coca leaves or coca tea offerings politely; coca is legal in traditional contexts. In rural areas, seek permission before entering communal lands.

Interesting facts
Bolivia has two capitals—Sucre and La Paz—and the world’s highest large administrative capital. Lake Titicaca, shared with Peru, is the highest navigable lake of its size. Salar de Uyuni’s wet-season “mirror” is visible from space and calibrates satellite altimeters. “Death Road” (North Yungas) draws cyclists despite hazards. Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid met their end in Bolivia (San Vicente, 1908, according to local lore). Che Guevara was captured near La Higuera in 1967; sites in Vallegrande and La Higuera recall his last days.

Myths and legends
Tiwanaku’s Gate of the Sun inspires creation tales about Viracocha. The Legend of Lake Titicaca recounts divine tears flooding the valley, forming the lake. The Ekeko of Alasitas promises abundance through miniature gifts. In mining communities, the Tío—a horned spirit—receives coca and alcohol to protect miners underground.

Money
Currency is the boliviano BOB. A practical guide rate is 1 USD ≈ 6.9–7.0 BOB. ATMs are common in cities but scarcer in small towns; carry cash for rural travel. Major cards are accepted by hotels, airlines, and many restaurants in cities; surcharges may apply. Casas de cambio in city centers offer decent rates; crisp USD notes fetch better exchange. Avoid changing money on the street. Tipping is customary but modest: 5–10 percent in restaurants with table service; small tips for porters and guides.

Practical details
Electricity is 230 V, 50 Hz; sockets are mainly Type A and C (some hybrid wall plates accept both). Mobile networks (Entel, Tigo, Viva) have broad urban coverage; 4G is common in cities. Local SIMs are inexpensive with passport registration. Smoking is prohibited in enclosed public spaces. Internet speeds vary widely; city cafés and hotels usually have Wi‑Fi.

Clothing
Dress in layers for Andean climates—sunny days, cold nights. A warm jacket, hat, gloves, and sun protection are essentials at altitude; rain gear and quick-dry clothing for the Amazon. Modest attire is appropriate in religious spaces and rural communities. Sturdy footwear helps on cobbles and trails. Open shoulders or shorts are fine in cities, but temperatures often favor trousers.

Tourism
Plan 10–14 days to experience highlands and lowlands. A classic arc includes La Paz (2–3 days for the cable cars, markets, Tiwanaku day trip), Lake Titicaca with Copacabana and Isla del Sol (1–2 days), Uyuni salt flat and Eduardo Avaroa reserve (3 days by 4×4), plus either Sucre–Potosí (2–3 days) or Santa Cruz–Jesuit Missions–Amboró (3–4 days). Add Madidi/Pampas (3–4 days from Rurrenabaque) for Amazon wildlife. Acclimatize at altitude before strenuous activities; build buffer days for strikes or weather. Many iconic sites lie on unpaved roads—book reputable operators, confirm oxygen and radios for Uyuni tours, and respect protected area rules.

Types of tourism
Wildlife watching and ecotourism
Archaeology and living indigenous cultures
High-altitude trekking and mountaineering
Historical cities and mining heritage
Adventure cycling and off-road expeditions
Gastronomy, coffee, cacao, and wine routes

Tourist attractions
– Salar de Uyuni – the world’s largest salt flat with wet-season mirror effects, not UNESCO
– Eduardo Avaroa Andean Fauna Reserve – flamingo lakes, geysers, and deserts, not UNESCO
– Tiwanaku – pre-Columbian ceremonial center, UNESCO
– Historic City of Sucre – whitewashed colonial capital and Casa de la Libertad, UNESCO
– City of Potosí and Cerro Rico – mining heritage and Andean Baroque, UNESCO
– Jesuit Missions of the Chiquitos – wooden mission churches amid lowland towns, UNESCO
– Fuerte de Samaipata – hilltop rock carvings and Inca outpost, UNESCO
– Noel Kempff Mercado National Park – table mountains and waterfalls on the Brazilian shield, UNESCO
– Lake Titicaca, Copacabana, and Isla del Sol – sacred landscapes and trails, not UNESCO
– La Paz and Mi Teleférico – sprawling Andean metropolis and panoramic cable car network, not UNESCO
– Death Road (North Yungas) – famed cycling descent with cloud forest views, not UNESCO
– Madidi National Park & Pampas – mega-biodiversity and river wildlife, not UNESCO
– Torotoro National Park – canyons, caves, and extensive dinosaur footprints, not UNESCO
– Sajama National Park – Bolivia’s highest peak, queñua forests, and geysers, not UNESCO

Non-tourist attractions
– Huanuni and San Cristóbal mines – operating tin and polymetallic mines with limited or controlled access
– Viru Viru cargo and logistics hub – Santa Cruz’s airport-related facilities
– YPFB gas fields and processing plants (e.g., Margarita, Sábalo) – strategic hydrocarbons infrastructure
– Brazil nut processing plants in Riberalta and Cobija – seasonal agro-industrial centers
– Camiri oil heritage zone – historic petroleum operations in the foothills
– Hydropower facilities (e.g., Corani) – key energy infrastructure in the valleys

Local cuisine
Signature dishes include salteñas (baked, juicy meat pastries); pique macho (beef, sausage, fries, peppers); silpancho (breaded beef over rice, potatoes, fried egg); chairo (Altiplano soup with charque and chuño); fricasé paceño (spicy pork stew with hominy); sajta de pollo (peppery chicken with chuño); sopa de maní (peanut soup); mondongo chuquisaqueño (pork with ají and hominy). Lowland fare features freshwater fish and yuca. Breads and sweets vary regionally. Drinks: singani (grape brandy), Bolivian wines (Tarija), chicha (fermented corn), api morado (spiced purple corn), artisanal beers (Paceña, Huari, Taquiña). Meal times skew to a large midday almuerzo and lighter evening cena. Street food is tempting; choose busy stalls, eat freshly cooked items, and favor bottled water. Tipping 5–10 percent is appreciated in sit-down restaurants.

Why visit
Unparalleled diversity—lunar salt flats, flamingo lakes, cloud forests, and jungle—intertwines with living indigenous cultures, baroque missions, and revolutionary history. Bolivia is immersive, authentic, and comparatively affordable, with experiences that still feel undiscovered.

Safety for tourists
Petty crime—pickpocketing and bag snatches—occurs in crowded areas and bus terminals; use registered taxis and avoid isolated streets at night. Be wary of scams by fake officials; request ID and decline on-the-spot “fines.” In some regions (Chapare, remote borders) crime is higher. Road travel faces risks from landslides, fog, and unpaved routes; consider reputable operators. Wildlife risks are manageable with guides; do not swim in unknown rivers. Health risks include altitude sickness, mosquito-borne diseases in the lowlands, and waterborne illness. Natural hazards include floods and wildfires in the dry season. Social protests and roadblocks can arise; monitor local news and keep buffer days. Emergency numbers: police 110, fire 119, ambulance 118. Attitudes toward foreign visitors are generally welcoming; cultural sensitivity earns trust.

Tourist infrastructure level
Accommodation ranges from basic hostales to boutique hotels and quality ecolodges; service is friendly if variable. English is spoken in tourist operations, less so elsewhere—Spanish helps immensely. Urban transport includes La Paz’s modern cable cars; intercity buses are extensive but mixed quality. Connectivity and payment systems are improving but bring cash backups.

Entry rules
Visa policy depends on nationality: many South American and European nationals enter visa-free for short stays; others require e‑visas or visas on arrival; some (including certain nationalities) need advance visas. Passport validity of at least 6 months, onward travel proof, and accommodation details are standard. A yellow fever certificate is recommended—and may be checked—if traveling to lowland departments. Customs prohibit export of cultural patrimony and wildlife; declare high-value items and large cash. Drones and aerial photography may require prior approval; special rules govern aerial imaging.

Transport
Intercity travel is mainly by bus; quality varies from cama (lie-flat) services to basic coaches. Passenger rail persists on two networks: western (Oruro–Uyuni–Villazón) and eastern (Santa Cruz–Roboré–Puerto Quijarro), with limited schedules. Domestic flights connect major cities and Rurrenabaque. In La Paz–El Alto, Mi Teleférico links neighborhoods across deep valleys; city transport includes minibuses, trufis (shared taxis), and apps in larger cities. Buy bus and rail tickets at terminals, agencies, or verified online platforms; strike-induced disruptions are possible.

Car travel
Driving is on the right. Typical speed limits: about 50 km/h urban, 70–80 km/h on open roads. Road conditions range from modern highways to rough gravel and mountain shelf roads—4×4 and high clearance are prudent outside cities. Seatbelts are required though not always enforced. The legal blood alcohol limit is about 0.05 percent. Police checkpoints verify documents—carry passport, license, and insurance; an International Driving Permit is recommended. Toll roads are limited; speed cameras are sparse, but roadside enforcement exists. Parking is informal; guard your belongings. In the wet season, landslides and flooding can block routes; in the dry season, dust and fires affect visibility.

Noise rules
No uniform nationwide quiet hours, but residential courtesy typically expects reduced noise after about 22:00. Festive seasons and parades can be loud; hotels often provide earplugs.

Daily budget
– Budget traveler – 200–300 BOB per day – $30–$45
– Mid-range – 400–800 BOB per day – $60–$120
– Luxury – 1200+ BOB per day – $175+
These estimates cover meals, lodging, transport, and activities; remote tours (Uyuni, Amazon) add significant fixed costs.

What not to do
Do not remove archaeological or paleontological materials, or purchase protected cultural artifacts. Do not fly drones near airports, military sites, protected areas, or communities without permits and consent. Do not photograph people—especially in markets—without asking. Do not attempt to export coca leaves; they may be legal domestically but illegal abroad. Avoid entering mines or dangerous roads without expert guides.

Climate
Climate zones vary sharply. The Altiplano and high valleys have dry, sunny winters (May–October) with cold nights, and wet summers (November–March). The lowlands are tropical with a pronounced rainy season in summer; cold surazos occasionally sweep north in winter. Best time overall is the dry season (May–October) for trekking, Uyuni circuits, and reliable transport. From December to March, the Salar’s water mirror is spectacular, but road closures and detours are common; the Amazon is lush but rainy.

Tips for travelers
Get yellow fever vaccination if visiting lowlands and keep routine shots current. Ascend gradually and rest on arrival at altitude; coca tea helps mild symptoms but is not a cure. Bring sun protection—high UV at altitude is intense. Pack small bills, a headlamp, power adapters, and a basic med kit. Learn key Spanish phrases. Choose licensed tour operators, confirm safety equipment, and avoid the cheapest options for high-risk activities. Build flexibility into your itinerary for weather and roadblocks. Respect local customs and the land—Bolivia rewards patience and presence.