Uzbekistan is a large, doubly landlocked country in Central Asia, roughly the size of California, sandwiched between Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan and Turkmenistan. Its name combines the Turkic root uz (“own”) and bek (“leader”) with the Persian suffix ‑stan (“land”)—the “Land of the Free.” The capital and largest city, Tashkent, grew up around an ancient oasis along the Chirchiq River. Uzbekistan claims nearly 38 million people of more than 20 ethnicities; Uzbeks make up about 85 percent, with Tajiks, Kazakhs, Karakalpaks and Russians among the rest. Uzbek is the state language; Russian serves as a second language, especially in business and government. Islam is the dominant religion, practiced by over 95 percent of the population, while small Orthodox Christian, Jewish and other communities persist. Uzbekistan is a unitary republic led by a president and a prime minister. Its armed forces include an army, air force and national guard. Casinos and large-scale gambling are banned under Islamic moral norms.

History
The territory of modern-day Uzbekistan has been a crossroads of civilizations for more than three thousand years. In the late Bronze and Iron Ages (c. 1500–500 bce), it formed part of powerful steppe-based cultures, including the Bactrians, Sogdians and Khwarezmians, who traded with Persia, China and the Indian subcontinent. Alexander the Great conquered these lands around 329 bce, founding the short-lived Hellenistic Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. In the 4th to 6th centuries ce the region was ruled by the Kushan Empire, linked by the Silk Road to Rome and Han China, making cities like Samarkand and Bukhara wealthy centers of trade and Buddhist learning.
The early medieval period saw the rise of the Samanid dynasty (819–999 ce), which made Bukhara the capital of an Islamic empire that fostered Persian culture and Sunni scholarship across Central Asia. Samanid patronage nurtured great poets, scientists and theologians, including al-Biruni and Avicenna. Samanid rule ended in 999 ce, supplanted by Turkic-speaking Ghaznavids and later the Qarakhanids, who converted the local population to Islam and built mosques and madrasas throughout the region.
In the early 13th century the Mongol armies of Genghis Khan swept through, destroying cities and reducing the population drastically. Over the next century the area was ruled by various Mongol and Turkic successor states until the 14th century, when the warlord Timur (Tamerlane) established a vast empire with its capital at Samarkand. Timur’s 14th-century court transformed Samarkand into an architectural marvel of azure-tiled madrasas, mausoleums and palaces. Timur’s heirs kept Samarkand at the heart of a Persianate Islamic culture known as the Timurid Renaissance, which blended Iranian, Turkic and Mongol traditions in art, science, astronomy and poetry.
In the early 16th century the Uzbek Shaybanid dynasty conquered Samarkand and Bukhara, founding khanates that lasted until the 19th century. These khanates were generally weak and embroiled in internecine strife, while the Russian Empire advanced south through the steppe. By the 1860s Russia had annexed the Kokand, Khiva and Bukhara khanates, creating the governorate of Russian Turkestan. Under tsarist rule, cotton monoculture was imposed and a railway network built, but local elites retained some autonomy.
During the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the ensuing civil war, the Bolsheviks crushed the Basmachi nationalist revolt. In 1924 the Soviets carved out the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic, launching drastic collectivization, industrialization and cultural Russification programs. Uzbek identity was reshaped through Soviet nationalities policy, new roads and factories were built, and Islam was repressed.
With the collapse of the USSR in 1991, Uzbekistan declared independence on August 31. Islam Karimov, the first president, ruled with an iron grip, maintaining stability but stifling political freedoms. From independence to 2016, Uzbekistan underwent limited economic reforms, but authoritarian rule persisted. After Karimov’s death in 2016, his successor, Shavkat Mirziyoyev, implemented cautious political and economic liberalization, reestablishing diplomatic ties, easing travel restrictions and attracting foreign investment. Yet restrictions on free speech and civil society remain, and stability continues to depend on strong presidential authority.

Industry
Uzbekistan’s economy remains anchored in agriculture and extractive industries. Cotton, long called “white gold,” and wheat dominate its exports. Uzbekistan is the world’s seventh-largest cotton producer, but reliance on forced and seasonal labor has marred the sector’s reputation. Gold mining at the Muruntau mine in the Kyzylkum Desert is among the largest open-pit operations in the world. The country also ranks among the top ten global producers of uranium, mined at Arlit and Akokan in neighboring Niger under French partnership.
Emerging oil and gas fields in the Gissar–Surkhandarya basin and the Amu Darya delta feed domestic needs and pipelines to China and Russia. Manufacturing is limited to textiles, food processing, cement and basic steel products. Few recognizable consumer brands originate here, though startups like the e-commerce platform Uzum have gained domestic prominence. Uzbekistan is pursuing industrial diversification through special economic zones, light engineering, automobiles assembly and expanded agro-processing.

Flora and Fauna
Spanning the hyperarid Kyzylkum Desert in the north to the wooded Tugai forest-savanna along the Amu Darya, Uzbekistan contains diverse habitats. Native plants include saxaul shrubs, tamarix and desert grasses. Over 4 600 vascular plant species flourish, including dozens of endemics like the Turkistan thyme (Thymus turkestanicus). The national Red Book lists 231 endangered species, such as the Bukhara deer (Cervus elaphus bactrianus), black saxaul (Haloxylon aphyllum), and the Turanian tiger, extirpated from the wild by mid-20th century.
Key nature reserves, like the 643 000-hectare Chatkal State Biosphere Reserve, protect snow leopards, ibex, Marco Polo sheep and brown bears. Reptiles include the Central Asian cobra and Levant viper, while scorpions and spiders inhabit desert oases. Migratory birds stop in the riparian mudflats of the Amu Darya delta, including Dalmatian pelicans and various herons. Trade in rare plant and animal species is regulated, though illegal harvesting of saxaul for charcoal remains an environmental challenge.
Domestic animals include fat-tailed sheep, Karakul lambs prized for pelts, native cattle and dromedary camels. Exports of Karakul pelts and live sheep require veterinary and CITES permits. Modern conservation efforts aim to expand protected areas, restore floodplain forest and reintroduce deer and gazelle.

Religion and Ethnic Groups
Islam dominates Uzbekistan; over 95 percent identify as Muslim, mostly Sunni of the Hanafi school. Sufi brotherhoods, particularly Naqshbandi and Qadiriyya orders, maintain spiritual influence. Orthodox Christians (Russian, Korean and other ethnicities), smaller Catholic and Evangelical Protestant communities, as well as limited Zoroastrian and Bahá’í presence, have legal recognition and operate under state registration.
Ethnically, Uzbeks number 84.6 percent per the 2022 census, followed by Tajiks (4.8 percent), Kazakhs (2.3 percent), Karakalpaks (2.2 percent), Russians (2.1 percent), and smaller groups of Tatars, Turkmen, Koreans, Jews and others. Intermarriage and bilingualism—Uzbek and Russian—are common in urban centers. Traditional festivals, including Navruz (spring equinox) and the cotton growers’ holiday in October, weave together pre-Islamic, Islamic and Soviet customs.

Wars and Conflicts
Though Uzbekistan itself has avoided large-scale civil war since 1917, the region has experienced periodic violence. The Basmachi guerrilla revolt (1918–34) fought Soviet rule until crushed by the Red Army. Uzbekistan contributed troops to coalition forces in Afghanistan post-2001 and remains vigilant along its 137 kilometer border with Afghanistan. Terrorist threats from IS-KP (Islamic State – Khorasan Province), EMK (Katibat al-Imam al-Bukhari) and HuT (Hizb ut-Tahrir) have led to security operations near Termez and the Surkhandarya region.
Uzbekistan co-manages the G5 Sahel force in West Africa, supplies logistical support to the U.N. MINUSMA mission in Mali and hosts U.S. and French counterterrorism aircraft at the Karshi-Khanabad airbase. Domestic security forces patrol oases and border crossings, while cooperation with neighboring Central Asian republics seeks to curb cross-border extremism and trafficking in arms and narcotics.

Living Standards
Uzbekistan is classified as lower-middle income with a GDP per capita of $3 030 (2024 nominal) and $11 600 (2024 ppp). Life expectancy is 72 years; adult literacy exceeds 99 percent. The Human Development Index ranks it 107th of 191 countries (HDI 0.740). Poverty falls from 27 percent in 2018 to an estimated 11 percent by 2023. The Corruption Perceptions Index scores 32 (121st of 180), reflecting ongoing challenges in governance and public sector transparency. Electricity access reaches 95 percent of urban and 75 percent of rural households. Internet use is growing, exceeding 50 percent of the population by 2023.

Medicine
Healthcare is state-run, free at the point of use but underfunded. Clinics in Tashkent and regional centers offer basic emergency and inpatient care; rural areas rely on feldshers. Pharmacies dispense many prescription medicines without robust cold-chain storage. Medical evacuation requires commercial aircraft charter or transfers to Kazakhstan, Russia or Turkey. Recommended pre-travel vaccinations include measles-mumps-rubella, hepatitis A, typhoid, tetanus, influenza and a rabies series for long stays or high-risk activities. Malaria prophylaxis is advised only for travel to Amu Darya oases near the Afghan border. Travel health insurance with medevac coverage is essential.

Sport
Football reigns supreme; the national team, the White Wolves, competes in AFC qualifiers and the Asian Cup. Boxing and wrestling are historically successful; Uzbekistan won four Olympic medals in Tokyo 2020 (gold in taekwondo, weightlifting, boxing; silver in judo) and six medals at Paris 2024 (three gold, two silver, one bronze). Orphan peak ski resorts near Beldersay and Amirsoy host regional winter sports, while the annual Silk Road Half Marathon (Shymkent–Tashkent) draws runners across the steppe. Traditional sports include Kurash (folk wrestling) and Kokpar (goat carcass polo).

Holidays
New Year’s Day – January 1
International Women’s Day – March 8
Navruz (Spring Equinox) – March 21
Remembrance Day – May 9
Eid al-Fitr – varies (May Feb)
Eid al-Adha – varies (June Jul)
Independence Day – September 1
Teachers’ Day – October 1
Constitution Day – December 8

Traditions
Hospitality (mehmonnavoziy) is sacred. Guests are greeted with bread, salt and green tea. Elders areaddressed first at meals. Shoes are removed before home or mosque entry. Dress modestly in rural and religious sites. Bargaining in bazaars (sukhba) is expected; buyers should make gifts of small coins to children.

Interesting Facts
Samarkand’s Registan Square was once the heart of Timur’s empire. The Ai-Khanum ruins bear Hellenistic remains. The Khiva madrasa of Muhammad Amin-khan (1913) is the last great monument built by khans. Uzbek film director Ali Khamraev premiered in Moscow in 1977. The Savitsky Museum in Nukus houses a trove of banned Soviet avant-garde art. Olympic champions Dusmatov, Nurudinov and Jalolov come from Uzbekistan.

Myths and Legends
Legend says the Sogdian princess Manica chose to drown herself in the pit of Kohna Urgench rather than surrender to invaders. The Tree of Tenere in the Sahara, linked to Tuareg oases, is memorialized in rock art along caravan routes.

Money
Currency: Uzbek sou02bbm (UZS). Exchange rate: US $1 ≈ 12 500 s. ATMs dispense sou02bbm; foreign cards accepted in major cities. Credit cards (Visa more widely than MasterCard) only at upscale hotels and restaurants. Banks are best for currency exchange. Tipping: 5 percent in restaurants, small change for tea servers and drivers.

Household Details
Electricity: 220 V, 50 Hz; plugs types C & F. Mobile: 3G/4G networks in cities (operators: UCell, Beeline, Humans). Wi-Fi: standard in hotels. Smoking: banned indoors in public places; designated smoking areas.

Clothing
Modest dress is recommended: women wear skirts or trousers to the ankle, shirts with sleeves and a headscarf in rural areas; men wear long trousers and shirts. Western casual attire is common in Tashkent.

Tourism
Uzbekistan requires 10–14 days to see Tashkent, the four main Silk Road cities, mountain resorts and desert sites. Peak season: April–June and September–October. Shoulder season: March, July–August, November. Tours: Silk Road circuits, cultural encounters, eco-adventures, ski breaks, volunteer and study programs.

Types of Tourism
Cultural, historical, religious pilgrimage, Silk Road tours, eco and agritourism, mountain trekking, winter sports, festival tourism, Homestays, culinary and volunteer programs.

Tourist Attractions
– Registan Square, Samarkand (UNESCO)
– Gur-e-Amir Mausoleum, Samarkand
– Bibi-Khanum Mosque, Samarkand
– Shah-i-Zinda Necropolis, Samarkand
– Historic Centre of Bukhara (UNESCO)
– Ark Fortress, Bukhara
– Kalon Minaret & Mosque, Bukhara
– Ichan Kala Citadel, Khiva (UNESCO)
– Turabek Khanum Mausoleum, Shakhrisabz (UNESCO)
– Western Tien Shan (UNESCO)
– Sitorai-Mohi-Khosa Palace, Tashkent

Non-Tourist Attractions
– Ayorou Livestock Market (Charvak)
– Igouloulu00e9f Springs (Kyzylkum Desert)
– Djado Plateau Petroglyphs (Tadzhik border)
– Khiva Brick Workshop (UNESCO-pending)
– Sukhanbai Potoev’s House-Museum, Urgench

Local Cuisine
Plov (rice with lamb, carrots), shurpa (meat soup), lagman (noodle soup), manti (steamed dumplings), samsa (meat pastries), chalop (cold yogurt soup), non (tandoor-baked bread), shashlik (grilled meat), halva. Alcohol: limited to beer and wine in cities. Meals: lunch and dinner; tea any time. Food safety: drink bottled water, avoid raw produce. Tip 5 percent.

Why Visit Uzbekistan
To experience architectural wonders, living Silk Road legacy, warm hospitality, colorful bazaars, unique cultural festivals, untouched natural landscapes and a window onto Central Asia’s past and future.

Tourist Safety
Generally low crime; avoid remote Afghan and Tajik border zones. Be vigilant against petty theft in crowds. Road travel: use official taxis or registered drivers. Health: carry prescriptions, use bottled water, malaria prophylaxis only near Afghan border. Emergency: police 102, ambulance 103, fire 101.

Tourist Infrastructure
Mid-level hotels in cities, basic guesthouses in smaller towns. Wi-Fi common in urban hotels. Tour guides speak Russian and limited English. Increasing offerings of small-group and private tours.

Entry Rules
Visa-free for 30 days for 90+ countries; e-visa for many others (valid single entry, 30 days). Passport valid ≥ 6 months, 2 blank pages. Yellow fever certificate only if arriving from endemic areas. Customs: declare > 10 000 USD in cash; prohibited: narcotics, certain plants and animals, unauthorized drones.

Transport
Domestic trains: high-speed Afrosiyob, slower rails. Buses and shared taxis connect cities. Metro in Tashkent. Taxis via Yandex Go and local apps. River transport negligible.

Car and Driving
4×4 recommended for rural roads. International Driving Permit required. Speed limits: 50 km/h in cities, 90 km/h outside. Police checkpoints common; no bribes for foreign tourists. No DUI. Toll roads under development. Parking informal.

Noise Regulations
No formal citywide noise ordinances; respect quiet hours (22:00–06:00). Prayer calls common.

Daily Budget
Backpacker: 70 000–100 000 s (US $6–8) Mid-range: 250 000–400 000 s (US $20–32) Luxury: 1 000 000+ s (US $80+)

Prohibitions
No proselytizing; no public alcohol in conservative areas; unauthorized drones; photographing security sites; disrespecting religious customs.

Climate
Continental: Sahara-style desert north, hot summers, cold winters; steppe and mountain zones south. Best time: April–June, September–October. Avoid July–August heat and December–February cold in the north.

Travel Tips
Get hepatitis A, typhoid, MMR, tetanus boosters; consider rabies for long stays; bring sunscreen, hat, sturdy shoes; learn basic Uzbek or Russian phrases; carry emergency cash; download offline maps