Madagascar is an island country in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern coast of Africa, separated from Mozambique by the Mozambique Channel. It is the world’s fourth largest island and a biodiversity hotspot famous for unique flora and fauna found nowhere else. The capital and largest city is Antananarivo, located in the central highlands. The official languages are Malagasy and French, and the currency is the ariary (MGA). With a land area of about 592,800 square kilometers and a population around 32 million, Madagascar is a unitary semi-presidential republic. The head of state is the President and the head of government is the Prime Minister; the bicameral Parliament consists of the National Assembly and Senate. The flag displays white, red, and green, and the national anthem is Ry Tanindrazanay malala ô. The military is modest in size and focused on internal security, border protection, and disaster response. Gambling is legal in limited, regulated forms, with a small number of licensed casinos, lotteries, and sports betting outlets.

Etymology and symbols
The English name Madagascar traces to medieval European usage, while in Malagasy the country is Repoblikan’i Madagasikara. The tricolor flag pairs a white vertical band with red and green horizontal bands, colors linked to Merina royal symbolism and coastal communities. The coat of arms features the island’s outline, a zebu head, and rice ears, reflecting agrarian identity and unity.

History
Madagascar’s human story begins with one of the most remarkable migrations in premodern history. The island was settled by Austronesian seafarers arriving in outrigger canoes from Island Southeast Asia roughly in the first millennium CE, likely between the 5th and 7th centuries. They brought rice agriculture, banana and taro cultivation, and an Austronesian language that evolved into Malagasy. From about the 9th century, Bantu-speaking peoples crossed from East Africa, contributing crops, cattle husbandry, metallurgy, and genetic lineages. Over centuries, communities diversified into regional polities such as the Merina in the central highlands, the Sakalava along the western coast, the Betsimisaraka on the east coast, and the Betsileo south of the highlands, among many others.
Indian Ocean commerce shaped Madagascar’s coasts. Arab and Swahili traders visited and settled, leaving a legacy in loanwords, Islam in some coastal communities, and trade networks dealing in slaves, cattle, and forest products. The Portuguese sighted the island in 1500, and later European interest waxed and waned, with pirate havens like Île Sainte-Marie in the 17th to 18th centuries becoming part of maritime lore. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the Sakalava confederations dominated western trade corridors. In the highlands, the Merina kingdom consolidated power under Andrianampoinimerina in the late 18th century, unifying the Imerina region and laying plans for expansion. His successor Radama I pursued modernization with British support, expanding Merina dominance over much of the island, encouraging missionary activity, and opening schools. The 19th century Merina court alternated between openness and resistance: Queen Ranavalona I imposed isolationist policies and internal control, while later monarchs allowed renewed European influence, Christianity, and diplomatic ties.
French imperial ambitions intensified after the Franco-Hova conflicts of the 1880s and 1890s. A French expedition occupied Antananarivo in 1895, and Madagascar was annexed as a colony in 1896, ending the Merina monarchy after the deposition of Queen Ranavalona III. Colonial rule reoriented the economy toward export crops and resource extraction, built railways such as the Antananarivo-Toamasina line, and expanded coastal ports. Resistance culminated in the 1947 Malagasy Uprising, a major anti-colonial revolt brutally suppressed, with tens of thousands of Malagasy deaths. Political reforms followed in the 1950s, and Madagascar declared independence on 26 June 1960, with Philibert Tsiranana as the first president.
Post-independence politics oscillated between liberalization and authoritarian rule. Economic and social unrest in 1972 led to military-backed transitions and, in 1975, the socialist-leaning Second Republic under Didier Ratsiraka, aligning with Eastern Bloc partners while maintaining a nationalist stance. Economic stagnation and debt prompted structural adjustments in the late 1980s. The 1991 pro-democracy movement forced a new constitution in 1992 and multiparty elections. Political turbulence persisted: Ratsiraka returned to office in 1997, then a disputed 2001-2002 election brought Marc Ravalomanana to power after a prolonged crisis. In 2009, Andry Rajoelina led a political takeover, ushering in a prolonged transitional period marked by international sanctions and a downturn in foreign investment. Democratic normalization resumed with elections in 2013-2014 and subsequent contests; Rajoelina returned to the presidency in 2019 and won reelection in 2023, amid opposition challenges and debates over governance.
Meanwhile, the economy diversified but remained vulnerable. Madagascar emerged as the world’s leading producer of natural vanilla, while mining projects like Ambatovy (nickel-cobalt) and ilmenite extraction near Tolagnaro added industrial heft. Tourism showcased rainforests, limestone tsingy, spiny deserts, and charismatic lemurs. Yet chronic deforestation, illegal logging, and habitat loss threatened biodiversity. Public health faced recurrent plague outbreaks, malaria, and periodic epidemics, while cyclones such as Gafilo in 2004, Enawo in 2017, and Batsirai in 2022 caused widespread damage. Despite these challenges, Malagasy society sustained resilient cultural traditions, including ancestor veneration and famadihana reburial ceremonies, and a growing urban middle class in Antananarivo. Today, Madagascar balances modernization with preservation, seeking inclusive growth, better governance, and conservation of its irreplaceable natural heritage.

Industry
The economy rests on agriculture, mining, light manufacturing, and services. Agriculture and agroforestry produce rice, cloves, coffee, cacao, and especially vanilla, of which Madagascar is the world’s top producer by volume and value. Mining is led by the Ambatovy nickel-cobalt project, ilmenite and zircon extraction by QMM near Tolagnaro, sapphires around Ilakaka, and growing graphite output. Export processing zones manufacture textiles and garments for global brands. Homegrown consumer brands include THB beer from STAR Madagascar and widely distributed Dzama rum from Nosy Be. While Madagascar is not birthplace to many global corporations, it underpins supply chains in vanilla, cloves, and nickel. Industrial records include leading global share in natural vanilla and among Africa’s largest lateritic nickel operations at Ambatovy.

Flora and fauna
Over 90 percent of Madagascar’s wildlife is endemic. Lemurs, from tiny mouse lemurs to the indri, are emblematic and many are threatened. The fossa, a cat-like carnivore, is the island’s apex mammal predator. Baobabs include several endemic species such as Adansonia grandidieri, forming surreal avenues near Morondava. The spiny forests of the southwest harbor unique euphorbias, didiereaceae, and birds like the long-tailed ground-roller. Chameleons are extraordinarily diverse, including the minute Brookesia micra and the Parsons chameleon. Critically endangered species include the ploughshare tortoise and radiated tortoise. Export of wildlife and protected plants is tightly controlled; illegal trade in rosewood and tortoises is a major conservation concern. Domestic animals include zebu cattle central to culture and economy. Visitors should avoid purchasing wildlife products and respect park rules for low-impact travel.

Religion and ethnic composition
Madagascar’s people share mixed Austronesian and East African ancestry, expressed in numerous ethnic groups such as Merina, Betsimisaraka, Betsileo, Sakalava, Antandroy, and others. Religion blends Christianity and traditional beliefs centered on ancestors and fady taboos. Broadly, around half of the population identifies as Christian, a large share observes indigenous beliefs, and a small minority is Muslim, mainly in coastal areas. Syncretism is common: churchgoing coexists with tomb rituals, and local taboos govern daily life, foods, and places.

Wars and conflicts
Since independence, Madagascar has avoided external wars, pursuing non-alignment and peaceful diplomacy. The most severe violence of the modern era was the 1947 anti-colonial uprising under French rule. Post-1960 crises have taken the form of political standoffs, mass protests, and occasional clashes, notably in 1991, 2002, and 2009, with fatalities but not sustained civil war. Terrorist incidents are rare. The armed forces and gendarmerie focus on internal security challenges, including rural banditry by cattle rustlers known as dahalo. Memorials and cemeteries commemorate colonial-era soldiers and independence martyrs.

Standard of living
Madagascar ranks low on the Human Development Index, with widespread poverty, especially in rural areas, and limited access to services. Urban centers like Antananarivo, Antsirabe, and Toamasina offer better schooling, healthcare, and jobs. Corruption remains a challenge, reflected in middling to poor rankings on global indices, though reforms target procurement, customs, and public finance. Food insecurity spikes after cyclones and droughts in the south. Informal employment is pervasive, and remittances and seasonal migration are safety nets.

Healthcare
Healthcare quality varies sharply. Major hospitals and private clinics operate in Antananarivo and regional capitals, but rural care is basic and distances are long. Malaria is present outside the highlands, dengue occurs seasonally, and plague outbreaks can happen between August and April. Schistosomiasis is a risk in freshwater. Travelers should consider vaccines for Hepatitis A and B, Typhoid, Tetanus-diphtheria-pertussis, and Rabies for remote travel, use mosquito precautions, drink treated water, and carry essential medications. Pharmacies are common in cities, with limited opening hours in small towns; carry prescriptions and a medical kit.

Sports
Football is the most popular sport, with the national team, the Barea, achieving a historic run at the 2019 Africa Cup of Nations. Rugby union has a passionate following, particularly in Antananarivo, with competitive domestic clubs and strong sevens teams. Athletics, basketball, and martial arts are practiced widely. Madagascar competes regularly at the Olympics but has not yet won an Olympic medal.

Holidays
Independence Day – 26 June – parades, concerts, fireworks nationwide. Martyrs’ Day – 29 March – commemorates the 1947 uprising. New Year’s Day – 1 January. Labour Day – 1 May. All Saints’ Day – 1 November. Christmas – 25 December. Muslim holidays are observed in coastal communities. Traditional festivals and famadihana reburials are scheduled by families and vary by region.

Traditions
Fady – local taboos – shape behavior and vary by place, governing foods, colors, gestures, and sacred sites. Ancestor veneration underpins social life, with elaborate tombs and periodic famadihana ceremonies to rewrap remains and celebrate lineage. Hosts value politeness and modest dress in rural areas; always ask before photographing people or tombs. Offer and accept with the right hand, supported by the left, and avoid stepping on thresholds.

Interesting facts
Madagascar hosts six endemic baobab species and more than 100 lemur species and subspecies. Île Sainte-Marie was a famed pirate refuge in the 17th-18th centuries, with a purported pirate cemetery. The Avenue of the Baobabs near Morondava is one of Africa’s most photogenic sites. The island experiences frequent cyclones; Cyclone Gafilo in 2004 was among the strongest recorded in the southwest Indian Ocean. The animated film franchise Madagascar brought global attention to the island’s name, though the films were not made there. Vanilla from Madagascar flavors ice creams and desserts worldwide.

Money
Currency – Malagasy ariary, MGA. Credit cards are accepted at higher-end hotels, restaurants, and shops in major cities and tourist hubs like Antananarivo and Nosy Be; cash is essential elsewhere. ATMs are available in cities and some towns. Exchange money at banks or licensed bureaux de change; avoid street exchangers. The exchange rate fluctuates, often in the mid-thousands MGA per 1 USD; check current rates before travel. Pay in cash for markets, fuel, and small guesthouses. Tipping is appreciated in tourist settings – around 5-10 percent in restaurants if service isn’t included, and small tips for guides and drivers.

Practical details
Electricity is 220V 50Hz, with plug types C and E common. Power cuts occur; carry a headlamp and a power bank. Mobile networks include Telma, Orange, and Airtel; SIM cards are inexpensive with registration required. Coverage is decent in cities and along main roads, limited in remote areas. Smoking is restricted in many indoor public places. Internet is adequate in cities, often slow in rural zones.

Clothing
Pack for varied climates: lightweight, breathable clothing for the coasts and north, a warm layer and rain jacket for the highlands, and sturdy footwear for parks. Modest dress is respectful in rural communities and at sacred sites. Beachwear is fine at resorts, but cover shoulders and knees when visiting villages or churches. A hat, sunscreen, and insect protection are essential.

Tourism
Distances are long and roads are slow, so allow 12-16 days for a classic route: Antananarivo – Andasibe rainforest – RN7 to Antsirabe, Ranomafana, Isalo – and on to Toliara with a flight back. For beaches and marine life, Nosy Be and the northwest islands offer diving and whale sharks between September and December; Sainte-Marie has humpback whales from June to September. Northern circuits include Ankarana’s caves and tsingy, Amber Mountain cloud forests, and Diego Suarez bays. East coast rainforests are lush but wetter. The Grand Tsingy of Bemaraha is best in the dry season, with rope bridges and limestone cathedrals. Book internal flights early, build buffer days for weather, and consider a driver-guide for flexibility. Ger camps do not exist here; instead, choose ecolodges, midrange hotels, and community-run guesthouses. French is widely used in tourism; some guides speak English.

Types of tourism
Wildlife and birding – lemurs, chameleons, endemics. Trekking and climbing – Andringitra, Isalo, Marojejy. Beach and diving – Nosy Be, Nosy Iranja, Ifaty, Mitsio and Radama archipelagos. Cultural and historical – Ambohimanga, royal sites, colonial towns. Adventure caving and tsingy – Ankarana and Bemaraha. Whale watching – Sainte-Marie. Kitesurfing and wind sports – Sakalava Bay, Ramena.

Tourist attractions list
– Tsingy de Bemaraha Strict Nature Reserve – otherworldly limestone pinnacles with hiking circuits – UNESCO
– Royal Hill of Ambohimanga – sacred royal complex near Antananarivo – UNESCO
– Rainforests of the Atsinanana – a serial site including parks like Ranomafana, Masoala, Andringitra, Marojejy, Zahamena, Andohahela – UNESCO
– Andasibe-Mantadia National Park – indri lemurs and lush rainforest near the capital
– Isalo National Park – sandstone canyons, natural pools, and alien vistas on the RN7
– Avenue of the Baobabs – iconic baobab alley near Morondava at sunset
– Ankarana Special Reserve – limestone tsingy, caves, and subterranean rivers in the north
– Amber Mountain National Park – crater lakes and montane rainforest above Diego Suarez
– Masoala National Park – vast rainforest and marine parks on the northeast peninsula
– Nosy Be Archipelago – beaches, diving, Lokobe Reserve, and ylang-ylang plantations
– Île Sainte-Marie – pirate history, beaches, and seasonal humpback whales
– Ranomafana National Park – hot springs and biodiverse rainforest with golden bamboo lemurs
– Antananarivo’s Rova and Analakely – royal palace reconstruction and lively markets

Non-touristic places of interest
– Ilakaka sapphire fields – a boomtown landscape of artisanal mining and makeshift pits
– Ambatovy industrial complex – large-scale nickel-cobalt refinery near Moramanga and Toamasina
– Toamasina port hinterland – warehouses and logistics yards powering trade
– Ambalavao zebu market – traditional cattle trading days drawing regional herders

Local cuisine
Rice anchors most meals, accompanied by laoka sides. Romazava – a national dish of beef or zebu with brèdes greens and gingery broth. Ravitoto – cassava leaves pounded and cooked with pork. Akoho sy voanio – chicken with coconut. Seafood is excellent on the coasts – lobster, prawns, fish curries. Street snacks include mofo gasy rice cakes and koba peanut-banana cake. Drinks include THB beer and Malagasy rums like Dzama; arrange rums are infused with spices, vanilla, or lychee. Lunch is the main meal in many areas; dinner can be simple rice and sides. Tip 5-10 percent in restaurants if not included. Stick to bottled or treated water, and be cautious with salads and ice outside reputable venues.

Why visit
Madagascar offers a once-in-a-lifetime blend of evolutionary marvels, starkly beautiful landscapes, and living traditions. From indri calls at dawn to sunset at the baobabs, from tsingy cathedrals to spiny deserts, the island delivers experiences found nowhere else on Earth.

Safety for tourists
Urban petty crime such as pickpocketing and bag snatching occurs; keep valuables concealed and use registered taxis. Avoid night travel between cities due to road hazards and occasional banditry by dahalo. Natural risks include cyclones from November to April, strong sun, and treacherous surf in some areas. Dangerous wildlife encounters are rare; more common hazards are mosquitoes, parasites in freshwater, thorny vegetation, and occasional stray dogs. Health risks include malaria outside the highlands, dengue, and seasonal plague outbreaks; maintain mosquito precautions and hygiene. Respect local fady to avoid social friction. Emergency numbers commonly used include police 117, gendarmerie 119, fire 118, and ambulance services in cities.

Tourist infrastructure level
Infrastructure ranges from comfortable boutique hotels and ecolodges in key areas to basic guesthouses in remote parks. Service quality is improving but can be uneven. French is widely spoken by staff; English is available in main tourist zones and with licensed guides, less so in rural areas. Cash payments are often preferred outside cities.

Entry rules
Many nationalities can obtain an eVisa or visa on arrival for short stays; confirm eligibility and fees before travel. Passports should be valid for at least six months with blank pages. A yellow fever certificate is required if arriving from a yellow fever risk country. Customs prohibit export of protected species, tortoises, corals, and unpermitted precious stones or rosewood. Drones require prior authorization; unauthorized use may lead to confiscation.

Transport
Domestic flights link Antananarivo with regional hubs and tourist gateways such as Nosy Be, Diego Suarez, Toamasina, and Toliara. Taxi-brousse minibuses connect towns on main national roads; purchase tickets at stations and expect flexible schedules. The FCE railway between Fianarantsoa and Manakara is scenic but irregular. In cities, taxis are abundant; agree on fares or ensure the meter is used where available. Pousse-pousse rickshaws are common in Antsirabe, while tuk-tuks operate in several towns.

Driving and cars
Traffic drives on the right. Road conditions vary from paved highways to rough laterite tracks; a high-clearance 4×4 is recommended for national park access and in the rainy season. Night driving is discouraged due to livestock, unlit vehicles, potholes, and security risks. Police and gendarmerie checkpoints are common; carry documents and remain courteous. The legal blood alcohol limit is low and enforcement can be strict; do not drink and drive. Speed limits are typically 50 km/h in cities and 90 km/h on open roads unless posted otherwise. Parking is informal outside city centers; watch for restrictions in Antananarivo. An International Driving Permit alongside your license is advisable. There are no winter conditions requiring special tires, but good all-terrain tires and a full-size spare are essential.

Noise regulations
Formal quiet hours vary by municipality, but hotels and guesthouses commonly ask for reduced noise from late evening to early morning. In residential areas, be considerate and avoid loud music at night.

Daily tourist budget
Budget – 120000 to 200000 MGA per day – roughly 25 to 45 USD – basic hotel, local eateries, shared transport. Midrange – 200000 to 450000 MGA – about 45 to 100 USD – comfortable lodging, guided day trips, some flights. High-end – 600000 MGA and up – around 130+ USD – boutique hotels, private drivers, internal flights and specialized guides.

What not to do
Do not photograph military sites, checkpoints, or airports. Do not buy or export tortoises, corals, rosewood, or unpermitted gemstones. Do not handle or sit on tombs, and always respect fady. Do not fly drones without authorization. Avoid freshwater swimming in schistosomiasis-prone areas. Do not display valuables openly in cities.

Climate
Madagascar has a tropical-maritime climate with strong regional contrasts. The east coast is humid and rainy year-round, the central highlands are cooler and drier, the west has pronounced dry seasons, and the south is arid with spiny deserts. Cyclone season runs November to April. The best overall time to visit is May to October for dry conditions, with whale watching from June to September on Sainte-Marie and prime diving in the northwest from September to December.

Tips for travelers
Consider vaccines for Hepatitis A and B, Typhoid, Tetanus-diphtheria-pertussis, and Rabies if visiting remote areas. Use malaria prophylaxis as advised and strict mosquito protection. Carry cash in small denominations outside major cities, and keep a backup card. Hire licensed guides in parks to spot wildlife and support conservation. Build buffer days for weather and plan slow travel; Madagascar rewards patience with unforgettable encounters.