Turkmenistan lies between the Caspian Sea to the west and Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan to the north, with Iran to the south and southwest and Afghanistan to the southeast. Most of its territory is the Karakum Desert, framed by the Kopet Dag mountains along the Iranian border and fed by rivers like the Amu Darya. The country’s name refers to the Turkmen people, a branch of Oghuz Turks. Population is around 6 million. The official language is Turkmen; Russian is used in business and urban settings, and Uzbek is significant in the north. Turkmenistan is a presidential republic with a highly centralized system; the president is head of state and government, and the Halk Maslahaty functions as the supreme representative body alongside the Mejlis parliament. The state is constitutionally neutral, a status recognized internationally since 1995. Gambling is prohibited except for state lotteries. The armed forces are based on conscription and focus on border security and internal defense. The flag features a green field with a vertical carpet-gul stripe, a white crescent and five stars; the emblem centers on an Akhal-Teke horse, a national symbol.

History
Turkmenistan’s oases have been settled since antiquity, anchoring routes that linked Iran, Central Asia and the steppe. In the Achaemenid and then Seleucid and Parthian eras, the Merv oasis became a key administrative and commercial hub on the Silk Road. Under the Sasanian Empire and early Islamic caliphates, Merv and nearby cities prospered as centers of learning and trade. The arrival of Oghuz Turkic tribes between the 9th and 11th centuries reshaped the region’s ethnic map. The Seljuks, an Oghuz dynasty with roots in this area, built an empire spanning from Central Asia to Anatolia, with Nisa near modern Ashgabat associated with early Parthian and later Seljuk traditions. In 1221 the Mongol conquest obliterated Merv in a notorious massacre, shattering the classical urban landscape. The Timurid period brought partial recovery, followed by control or influence from Uzbek khanates and Persian dynasties. Turkmen tribes such as the Teke, Yomut, Ersari and Saryk maintained semi-nomadic lifeways across deserts and foothills, raiding and trading across porous frontiers and developing distinct carpet motifs that endure today.
In the 19th century, Russian imperial expansion reached the Transcaspian. The decisive Battle of Geok Tepe in 1881 broke Teke resistance and paved the way for annexation. The Trans-Caspian Railway stitched the oases into the empire’s logistics and grain economy, while administrative centers formed at Ashgabat and elsewhere. After the 1917 revolutions, civil war and Basmachi resistance marked the early Soviet years. The Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic was established in 1924, ushering in collectivization and sedentarization campaigns that upended tribal life. The 1948 Ashgabat earthquake killed tens of thousands and devastated the capital, an event commemorated annually. Postwar decades brought industrialization and the Karakum Canal, one of the world’s longest irrigation canals, redirecting Amu Darya waters across the desert to support cotton and settlement, though with long-term ecological costs.
As the USSR dissolved, Turkmenistan declared independence in 1991. Saparmurat Niyazov, Turkmenbashi, consolidated hyper-presidential power, created a personality cult and pursued state neutrality while striking gas export deals. His idiosyncratic rule mixed free domestic utilities with heavy social control and a reimagining of public symbolism, from renaming months to monumental architecture. After Niyazov’s death in 2006, Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow took office, easing some symbolic strictures, reengaging with education and health sectors and accelerating construction in Ashgabat while preserving authoritarian fundamentals. Massive gas fields like Galkynysh – among the world’s largest – shifted export orientation from Russia to China via pipelines completed in 2009 and expanded thereafter, while swap arrangements with Iran continued intermittently. Turkmenistan hosted the 2017 Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games in a new Olympic complex, part of a marble-clad capital that accumulated Guinness records for architectural superlatives. The Darvaza gas crater, accidentally created during Soviet exploration in the 1970s, became an unlikely emblem of the Karakum. In 2022 Serdar Berdimuhamedow succeeded his father as president, while the elder leader assumed the role of National Leader and chaired the Halk Maslahaty as it was elevated in the political hierarchy. Economic pressures from commodity cycles, demographic outflows and pandemic-era border closures shaped the 2020s, as the state balanced insularity, neutrality and episodic outreach, including revived discussions of regional pipelines like TAPI. Through these turns, Turkmenistan has placed continuity and sovereignty at the center of its narrative, threading modern statehood onto an ancient desert corridor.

Industry
Hydrocarbons dominate. Natural gas reserves are vast, centered on Galkynysh, Dovletabat and other fields, with pipelines to China and Iran and legacy links to Russia. Gas feeds petrochemicals and fertilizers, including polymer plants on the Caspian and urea and ammonia complexes inland. Oil production and refining are smaller but important around Turkmenbashi. Cotton remains a major agricultural crop, supported by extensive irrigation; wheat, melons and livestock complement the rural economy. Textiles and carpets are signature manufactures, with Turkmen handmade carpets prized for their guls and natural dyes. Other outputs include cement, glass and construction materials to feed building booms in Ashgabat and Avaza on the Caspian coast. Aviation is served by Turkmenistan Airlines. Industrial superlatives include the Karakum Canal’s scale and Ashgabat’s concentration of white marble architecture.

Flora and fauna
The Karakum’s desert flora features saxaul trees, tamarisk and salt-tolerant shrubs, with spring blooms after rare rains. Foothills and mountains support pistachio and juniper woodlands. Wildlife includes goitered gazelles, urials, wild boar, golden jackals, foxes and desert reptiles; the Persian leopard persists in remote Kopet Dag segments. Saiga antelopes have historically ranged into northern deserts, now rare. Wetlands along the Caspian and Amu Darya attract migratory birds. Hazards include venomous snakes and scorpions; camel spiders, though intimidating, are not venomous. Export of wildlife, raw carpets, and cultural artifacts is tightly regulated; exporting new or antique carpets requires certification, and protected species are covered by CITES rules. Akhal-Teke horses are a national treasure, bred and celebrated rather than exported casually.

Religion and races
Ethnic Turkmen form the majority, with Uzbek, Russian, Kazakh and smaller Baloch, Tatar, Armenian and Azeri communities. Sunni Islam of the Hanafi school predominates, with a Russian Orthodox minority and small other communities. The state is secular but closely manages religious life. Customs emphasize hospitality, respect for elders, family networks and community events tied to the agricultural calendar and Islamic holidays.

Wars and conflicts
Turkmenistan maintains a policy of permanent neutrality and is not a party to wars. Border security is active along Afghanistan, with occasional reports of incidents, but the state avoids external entanglements. Domestic terrorism incidents are rare. The country commemorates war dead from the Great Patriotic War and victims of the 1948 earthquake, with memorials in Ashgabat and regional centers.

Standard of living
The state has historically subsidized utilities and fuel, though benefits were scaled back in recent years. Official statistics report growth driven by gas and construction, yet purchasing power and employment vary widely and many citizens seek work abroad. International governance and corruption indicators place Turkmenistan near the bottom globally, reflecting a closed economy, capital controls and limited transparency. Urban cores showcase impressive infrastructure, while rural services can be basic.

Medicine
Public hospitals and clinics cover cities, with private options limited. Standards vary; complex care is often sought abroad by those who can afford it. Pharmacies operate standard daytime hours with some late openings in urban areas. Travelers should carry comprehensive insurance, bring regular medications with prescriptions, and drink bottled or boiled water. Heat stress, dehydration and gastrointestinal upsets are the most common issues; vaccines for hepatitis A, typhoid and routine boosters are sensible.

Sport
Football is the most popular sport, with cycling, wrestling and weightlifting also significant. Equestrian culture is central, celebrating the Akhal-Teke breed. Ashgabat hosted the 2017 Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games. Turkmenistan competes at the Olympics; the country won its first Olympic medal in 2021 at the Tokyo Games.

Holidays
Key dates include Nowruz on March 21-22, Constitution and State Flag Day on May 18, Turkmen Horse Day in late April, Carpet Day in late May, Melon Day in August, Independence Day on September 27, Remembrance Day on October 6 for the 1948 earthquake, and Neutrality Day on December 12. Islamic holidays of Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha are observed according to the lunar calendar.

Traditions
Tea hospitality, bread and salt rituals, and elaborate weddings with music and dance define social life. Carpets and embroidered telpek hats symbolize identity. Guests are seated by honor, shoes are removed in homes, and elders are greeted first. Tourists should dress modestly, ask before photographing people or private property, and avoid sensitive topics.

Interesting facts
Three UNESCO World Heritage sites mark the Silk Road legacy: Ancient Merv, the ruins of Konye-Urgench, and the Parthian fortresses of Nisa. Ashgabat holds records for white marble-clad buildings and features the world’s largest indoor Ferris wheel. The Darvaza gas crater, the Door to Hell, has burned for decades in the Karakum. The 1948 earthquake ranks among the deadliest of the 20th century. Magtymguly Pyragy, an 18th-century poet, is revered as a nation-shaping figure. The Yangykala Canyons in the west glow pink and orange at sunset.

Money
The currency is the Turkmen manat. The official exchange rate is tightly managed and differs from informal market rates. Credit cards have limited acceptance outside top hotels, and foreign card withdrawals can be unreliable. Bring clean USD notes and exchange only at banks or licensed exchanges; black market currency exchange is illegal. ATMs are found in major cities but may not service foreign cards. Tipping is modest and discretionary, around 5-10 percent in restaurants if service is not included.

Household details
Electricity is 220 V, 50 Hz, with Type C and Type F plugs. Mobile service is provided by state operators; SIM registration is required and internet access is filtered. Smoking is restricted in many public indoor spaces. Internet and roaming can be slow or limited, especially outside Ashgabat.

Clothing
Light, breathable clothing suits the desert climate, with a warmer layer for cool winter evenings and mountain areas. Modest dress is expected in towns and rural areas. Shorts and sleeveless tops draw attention, especially for women; long trousers or skirts and covered shoulders are advisable. Headscarves are not required for non-Muslim visitors, but respectful attire is appreciated at religious sites. A sun hat, sunglasses and sunscreen are essential.

Tourism
Travel is regulated. Most tourists enter on prearranged tours with a letter of invitation and are accompanied by guides on set itineraries. A compact 5-7 day trip covers Ashgabat’s monuments and museums, Parthian Nisa, the Darvaza gas crater with an overnight at the rim, and either Ancient Merv near Mary or Konye-Urgench in the north. With 8-10 days, add Yangykala Canyons and the Caspian coast around Turkmenbashi and Avaza, plus the Kow Ata underground lake and the mountain village of Nokhur. With 12-14 days, include Dehistan’s medieval ruins, the Garabogazköl coast, and more time in oases. Distances are long but manageable by domestic flights and highways; sand, heat and checkpoints slow overland travel, so buffer time helps. Photography is rewarding but restricted near government buildings, military sites, border areas and some infrastructure.

Types of tourism
Cultural and archaeological exploration, desert and canyon landscapes, architectural and urban photo tours, equestrian culture, Caspian seaside relaxation in Avaza, and carefully managed eco and mountain village visits.

Tourist attractions
– Ancient Merv – vast Silk Road oasis city with mausoleums and fortifications – UNESCO
– Parthian fortresses of Nisa – royal complex near Ashgabat with excavated walls and halls – UNESCO
– Konye-Urgench – ruins of the Khorezm capital with soaring minarets and mausoleums – UNESCO
– Darvaza Gas Crater – flaming sinkhole in the Karakum Desert, dramatic at night
– Ashgabat Monumental Axis – Independence Monument, Neutrality Monument and marble avenues
– Turkmen Carpet Museum – masterworks of tribal weaving, including record-sized carpets
– Yangykala Canyons – multicolored badlands and cliffs near the Caspian
– Kow Ata underground lake – warm sulfur cave lake in the Kopet Dag foothills
– Nokhur village – mountain traditions, stone-lane cemetery with goat-horn markers
– Avaza Caspian coast – resorts, canals and beaches near Turkmenbashi
– Dehistan – remote medieval city ruins and caravanserai remains
– Kopet Dag foothill parks – picnicking, short hikes and views over Ashgabat

Non-tourist attractions
– Karakum Canal locks and siphons – glimpses of Soviet-era hydraulic engineering from public embankments
– Garabogazköl causeway – views over the hypersaline lagoon and salt works from roadside turnouts
– Gas compressor and petrochemical zones near Turkmenbashi and Kiyanly – visible from public roads only
– Cotton ginneries and grain elevators on oasis edges – seasonal operations
– Livestock markets on provincial outskirts – early-morning trading scenes

Local cuisine
Staples include plov with lamb, carrots and raisins, shashlik from charcoal grills, dograma – a ceremonial broth with torn bread and meat, ichlekli meat pies, manty dumplings, chorba soups and gutap stuffed pastries. Fresh melons and grapes are seasonal highlights. Tea accompanies most meals. Alcohol is available in cities and hotels but limited elsewhere. Restaurants serve lunch and dinner in typical Eurasian hours; many add a service charge. Tip modestly if none is included. Choose freshly cooked dishes, peel fruit and drink bottled water.

Why visit
Where else pairs marble modernism with silent deserts and world-class Silk Road ruins, lit at night by a burning crater beneath a field of stars. Turkmenistan is singular, surreal and unforgettable for travelers who value the rare and remote.

Safety for tourists
Street crime is generally low, with extensive policing and surveillance. The main risks are environmental: heat, dehydration, sun exposure, sandstorms and winter cold snaps. Desert fauna include snakes and scorpions; shake out shoes and use a flashlight at night. Respect strict rules on photography and avoid government, military and border facilities. Health risks include gastrointestinal illness and heat exhaustion; hygiene improves in top hotels. Locals are courteous; political discussions are best avoided. Emergency numbers follow Soviet conventions: police 02, fire 01, ambulance 03. Your guide and hotel are primary points for assistance.

Tourist infrastructure level
Ashgabat offers quality hotels, museums and venues; Avaza has modern resorts. Elsewhere, accommodation is basic to mid-range. English is spoken by licensed guides and in major hotels, less so in shops and provinces. Transport, permits and lodging are usually arranged by tour operators.

Entry rules
Most visitors need a visa with a letter of invitation from a licensed Turkmen tour operator or host. Passports should be valid for at least 6 months with confirmed itinerary and hotel bookings. Transit visas have been limited in recent years. Customs controls are strict: declare currency, medications with prescriptions, and electronics when requested. Drones are generally prohibited. Export of carpets and antiques requires documentation and sometimes appraisal fees.

Transport
Domestic flights connect Ashgabat with Mary, Turkmenbashi, Dashoguz and Turkmenabat. Trains run overnight on key routes at modest speeds. Intercity road travel is by private car through agencies; shared taxis and buses operate but are not common for visitors on tours. City taxis are arranged via hotels or curbside; agree on fares in advance. Tickets for public transport are bought at stations or through operators.

Automobile
Tourists rarely self-drive; itineraries are vehicle-based with professional drivers. If you do drive, it is on the right, with seat belts required. Roads range from good highways near cities to rough desert tracks. Police checkpoints are frequent; keep documents handy and remain courteous. Speed limits are typically 60 km/h in cities and 90-110 km/h on highways. Alcohol at the wheel is strictly prohibited. Parking is regulated in central Ashgabat; use designated lots. For desert routes, a high-clearance 4×4 is essential, and night driving is discouraged.

Noise regime
Residential quiet hours generally start around 22:00. Public events and music are regulated and often require permits.

Daily tourist budget
Shoestring group tour: 525-875 TMT – 150-250 USD per person per day
Mid-range private tour: 1,050-1,750 TMT – 300-500 USD per person per day
Comfort premium: 2,100+ TMT – 600+ USD per person per day

What is not recommended or prohibited
Do not photograph government, military, border infrastructure or certain public buildings. Do not use drones. Avoid political gatherings and commentary. Do not exchange currency on the street. Exporting carpets, fossils, artifacts or protected flora and fauna without permits is illegal. Dress modestly in public facilities and religious sites.

Climate
A continental desert climate brings scorching summers and cold winters. July temperatures often exceed 40 C in the lowlands, while January can dip below freezing, especially at night. Spring and autumn are mild and windy, with dust storms possible. The best travel windows are April-May and late September-November.

Tips for tourists
Carry cash in clean USD, a reusable water bottle and sun protection. Confirm photography permissions before raising a camera. Keep your passport and migration card accessible. Build in rest during midday heat. For desert nights at Darvaza, bring warm layers despite hot days. Stay flexible: checkpoints, weather and formalities can shift timings.